"Food and light industry" - Seiner. The second group of industries. Here are the boots and ready. Professions in light and food industry. Fish industry. Problems of food and light industry. In the 19th century, Russian fullers walked around the Chuvash villages and felted on the spot on request. The main centers of the textile industry. Specializing in the production of hosiery and knitwear, founded in 1962.

"World Industry" - The listed groups of industries have different growth rates. However, ferrous metallurgy in developing countries is rapidly gaining momentum. One of the main branches of mechanical engineering in the world is the automotive industry. What is the sectoral structure of industry in developed (EDC) and developing countries (DC)? Non-ferrous metallurgy.

"Industrial geography" - Fuel and energy industry. 1) coal mining 2) iron ore 3) metallurgical 4) production of railway rolling stock 5) shipbuilding 6) textile. governs the world!!! Old. Distribution of world industrial production by leading countries (2000). Industry groups.

"Metallurgical industry" - Heavy metals. Why has the role of Canada, Australia and South Africa increased in the mining industry? Name the "great mining powers". Transportable. 1. North America: 30% full range. Engineering. To the consumer. Metallurgical industry, mechanical engineering, chemical industry of the world. WORLD COPPER INDUSTRY AT THE LATE 1990s

"Fuel Industry" - The history of the oil industry in illustrations. Ways of development of the fuel industry. fuel industry of the world. Types of fuel industry. Oil industry. Oil. Gas industry. Coal. Oil transportation. Mineral resources of the world. Extraction and transportation of coal. There are two ways of development: the coal stage (XIX - early XX); oil and gas stage (XX - XXI).

"Forest industry" - Construction complex - paints, varnish, fiberboard, chipboard. To the consumer - personal hygiene products, pharmaceuticals and more. Chemical-forest industry. placement factors. composition of the timber industry. Timber industry: agro-industrial complex - packaging, containers, wrappers, boxes. Problems. Stages - logging, sawmilling, woodworking, wood chemistry, pulp and paper industry.

Technological progress associated with the applied use of scientific achievements has developed in hundreds of interrelated areas, and it is hardly legitimate to single out any one group of them as the main one. At the same time, it is obvious that the improvement of transport had the greatest impact on world development in the first half of the 20th century. It ensured the activation of ties between peoples, gave an impetus to domestic and international trade, deepened the international division of labor, and caused a real revolution in military affairs.
Development of land and sea transport. The first samples of cars were created in 1885-1886. German engineers K. Benz and G. Daimler, when new types of liquid fuel engines appeared. In 1895, the Irishman J. Dunlop invented pneumatic rubber tires, which significantly increased the comfort of cars. In 1898, 50 companies producing cars appeared in the USA, in 1908 there were already 241 of them. In 1906, a caterpillar tractor with an engine was manufactured in the USA. internal combustion, which greatly increased the possibilities of cultivating land. (Prior to this, agricultural vehicles were wheeled, with steam engines.) With the outbreak of World War 1914-1918. armored tracked vehicles- tanks first used in hostilities in 1916. Second World War 1939-1945 was already completely a "war of motors". At the enterprise of the American self-taught mechanic G. Ford, who became a major industrialist, in 1908 the Ford T was created - a car for mass consumption, the first in the world to be put into mass production. By the time the Second World War began, more than 6 million trucks and more than 30 million cars and buses were in operation in the developed countries of the world. The development in the 1930s contributed to the reduction in the cost of operating cars. the German concern "IG Farbindustry" technology for the production of high-quality synthetic rubber.
The development of the automotive industry demanded cheaper and stronger structural materials, more powerful and economical engines contributed to the construction of roads and bridges. The car has become the most striking and visual symbol of technological progress of the 20th century.
Development road transport in many countries it created competition for the railways, which played a huge role in the 19th century, at the initial stage of the development of the industry. General vector of development railway transport there was an increase in the power of locomotives, the speed of movement and the carrying capacity of trains. Back in the 1880s. the first electric city trams, the subway appeared, which provided opportunities for the growth of cities. At the beginning of the 20th century, the process of electrification unfolded railways. The first diesel locomotive (diesel locomotive) appeared in Germany in 1912.
For the development of international trade, an increase in the carrying capacity, speed of ships and a decrease in the cost of shipping were of great importance. Since the beginning of the century, ships with steam turbines and internal combustion engines (motor ships or diesel-electric ships) began to be built, capable of crossing the Atlantic Ocean in less than two weeks. The navies were replenished with ironclads with reinforced armor and heavy weapons. The first such ship, the Dreadnought, was built in Great Britain in 1906. The battleships of the Second World War turned into real floating fortresses with a displacement of 40–50,000 tons, a length of up to 300 meters, and a crew of 1.5–2 thousand people. Thanks to the development of electric motors, the construction of submarines became possible, which played a large role in the first and second world wars.
Aviation and rocket technology. Aviation became a new means of transport of the 20th century, which very quickly acquired military significance. Its development, which originally had recreational and sports significance, became possible after 1903, when the Wright brothers in the USA used a light and compact airplane. Gas engine. Already in 1914, the Russian designer I.I. Sikorsky (later emigrated to the United States) created the Ilya Muromets four-engine heavy bomber, which had no equal. He carried up to half a ton of bombs, was armed with eight machine guns, and could fly at an altitude of up to four kilometers.
The First World War gave a great impetus to the improvement of aviation. At its beginning, the planes of most countries - "whatnots" made of matter and wood - were used only for reconnaissance. By the end of the war, fighters armed with machine guns could reach speeds of over 200 km / h, heavy bombers had a payload capacity of up to 4 tons. In the 1920s G. Junkers in Germany carried out the transition to all-metal aircraft structures, which made it possible to increase the speed and range of flights. In 1919, the world's first postal passenger airline New York - Washington was opened, in 1920 - between Berlin and Weimar. In 1927, the American pilot C. Lindbergh made the first non-stop flight across the Atlantic Ocean. In 1937, Soviet pilots V.P. Chkalov and M.M. Gromov flew over the North Pole from the USSR to the USA. By the end of the 1930s. air communication lines connected most regions of the globe. Aircraft proved to be faster and more reliable vehicle than airships - aircraft lighter than air, which at the beginning of the century predicted a great future.
Based on the theoretical developments of K.E. Tsiolkovsky, F.A. Zander (USSR), R. Goddard (USA), G. Oberth (Germany) in the 1920s-1930s. liquid-propellant (rocket) and air-jet engines were designed and tested. The Group for the Study of Jet Propulsion (GIRD), created in the USSR in 1932, in 1933 launched the first rocket with a liquid rocket engine, in 1939 tested a rocket with an air-jet engine. In Germany, in 1939, the world's first Xe-178 jet aircraft was tested. The designer Wernher von Braun created the V-2 rocket with a range of several hundred kilometers, but an ineffective guidance system, since 1944 it was used for the bombing of London. On the eve of the defeat of Germany, a Me-262 jet fighter appeared in the sky over Berlin, and work on the V-3 transatlantic rocket was close to completion. In the USSR, the first jet aircraft was tested in 1940. In England, a similar test took place in 1941, and prototypes appeared in 1944 (Meteor), in the USA - in 1945 (F-80, Lockheed) ).
New construction materials and energy. The improvement of transport was largely due to new structural materials. Back in 1878, the Englishman S. J. Thomas invented a new, so-called Thomas method of melting iron into steel, which made it possible to obtain metal of increased strength, without impurities of sulfur and phosphorus. In 1898-1900s. even more advanced electric arc melting furnaces appeared. Improvement in the quality of steel and the invention of reinforced concrete made it possible to erect structures of unprecedented dimensions. The height of the Woolworth skyscraper, built in New York in 1913, was 242 meters, the length of the central span of the Quebec Bridge, built in Canada in 1917, reached 550 meters.
The development of the automotive industry, engine building, the electrical industry, and especially aviation, then rocket technology, required lighter, stronger, refractory structural materials than steel. In the 1920s-1930s. the demand for aluminium. In the late 1930s With the development of chemistry, chemical physics, which studies chemical processes using the achievements of quantum mechanics, crystallography, it became possible to obtain substances with predetermined properties, which have great strength and durability. In 1938, artificial fibers such as nylon, perlon, nylon, and synthetic resins were obtained almost simultaneously in Germany and the USA, which made it possible to obtain qualitatively new structural materials. True, their mass production acquired special significance only after the Second World War.
The development of industry and transport has increased energy consumption and required the improvement of energy. The main source of energy in the first half of the century was coal, back in the 30s. In the 20th century, 80% of electricity was generated at thermal power plants (CHP) that burned coal. True, in 20 years - from 1918 to 1938, the improvement of technology made it possible to halve the cost of coal for the generation of one kilowatt-hour of electricity. Since the 1930s the use of cheaper hydropower began to expand. The world's largest hydroelectric power station (HPP) Boulder Dam with a dam 226 meters high was built in 1936 in the USA on the Colorado River. With the advent of internal combustion engines, there was a demand for crude oil, which, with the invention of the cracking process, they learned to decompose into fractions - heavy (fuel oil) and light (gasoline). In many countries, especially in Germany, which did not have its own oil reserves, technologies for producing liquid synthetic fuels were being developed. Natural gas has become an important source of energy.
Transition to industrial production. The need for the production of increasing volumes of technologically more and more complex products required not only the renewal of the fleet of machine tools, new equipment, but also a more perfect organization of production. The advantages of intra-factory division of labor were known as early as the 18th century. A. Smith wrote about them in his famous work “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations” (1776). In particular, he compared the work of an artisan who made needles by hand, and a manufactory worker, each of whom performed only individual operations using machine tools, noting that in the second case, labor productivity increased by more than two hundred times.
American engineer F.W. Taylor (1856-1915) proposed to divide the process of manufacturing complex products into a number of relatively simple operations performed in a clear sequence with the timing required for each operation. For the first time, the Taylor system was tested in practice by the auto manufacturer G. Ford in 1908 in the production of the Ford-T model he invented. In contrast to the 18 operations for the production of needles, 7882 operations were required to assemble a car. As G. Ford wrote in his memoirs, the analysis showed that 949 operations required physically strong men, 3338 could be performed by people of average health, 670 could be performed by legless disabled people, 2637 by one-legged, two by armless, 715 by one-armed, 10 by blind . It was not about charity with the involvement of disabled people, but a clear distribution of functions. This made it possible, first of all, to significantly simplify and reduce the cost of training workers. Many of them now required no more skill than needed to turn a lever or turn a nut. It became possible to assemble machines on a continuously moving conveyor belt, which greatly accelerated the production process.
It is clear that the creation of conveyor production made sense and could be profitable only with large volumes of output. The symbol of the first half of the 20th century was the giants of industry, huge industrial complexes employing tens of thousands of people. Their creation required the centralization of production and the concentration of capital, which were ensured through mergers of industrial companies, the combination of their capital with bank capital, and the formation of joint-stock companies. The very first established large corporations that mastered conveyor production ruined competitors who were delayed in the phase of small-scale production, monopolized the domestic markets of their countries, and launched an attack on foreign competitors. Thus, five major corporations dominated the electrical industry on the world market by 1914: three American corporations (General Electric, Westinghouse, Western Electric) and two German ones (AEG and Simmens).
The transition to large-scale industrial production, made possible by technological progress, contributed to its further acceleration. Reasons for rapid acceleration technical development in the 20th century are associated not only with the successes of science, but also with the general state of the system of international relations, the world economy, and social relations. In the conditions of ever-increasing competition in world markets, the largest corporations were looking for methods to weaken competitors and invade their spheres of economic influence. In the last century, methods of increasing competitiveness were associated with attempts to increase the length of the working day, the intensity of labor, without increasing, or even reducing the wages of employees. This made it possible, by releasing large volumes of products at a lower cost per unit of goods, to push out competitors, sell products cheaper and make more profit. However, the use of these methods was, on the one hand, limited by the physical capabilities of hired workers, on the other hand, they met with increasing resistance, which violated social stability in society. With the development of the trade union movement, the emergence of political parties that defend the interests of wage laborers, under their pressure, in most industrialized countries, laws were passed that limited the length of the working day and established minimum wage rates. When labor disputes arose, the state, which was interested in social peace, increasingly shied away from supporting entrepreneurs, gravitating toward a neutral, compromise position.
Under these conditions, the main method of increasing competitiveness was, first of all, the use of more advanced productive machines and equipment, which also made it possible to increase the volume of output at the same or even lower cost of human labor. So, only for the period 1900-1913. labor productivity in industry increased by 40%. This provided more than half of the growth in world industrial output (it amounted to 70%). Technical thought turned to the problem of reducing the cost of resources and energy per unit of output, i.e. reducing its cost, switching to the so-called energy-saving and resource-saving technologies. So, in 1910 in the USA the average cost of a car was 20 average monthly salaries of a skilled worker, in 1922 - only three. Finally, the most important method of conquering markets has become the ability to update the range of products before others, to throw products on the market that have qualitatively new consumer properties.
The most important factor in ensuring competitiveness, therefore, has become technological progress. Those corporations that benefited the most from it naturally secured advantages over their competitors.
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. Describe the main directions of scientific and technological progress by the beginning of the 20th century.
2. Give the most significant examples of the impact of scientific discoveries on changing the face of the world. Which of them would you single out especially in terms of significance in the scientific and technological progress of mankind? Explain your opinion.
3. Explain how scientific discoveries in one area of ​​knowledge influenced advances in other areas. What impact did they have on the development of industry, agriculture, the state of the financial system?
4. What place did the achievements of Russian scientists occupy in world science? Give examples from the textbook and other sources of information.
5. Reveal the origins of increasing productivity in industry at the beginning of the 20th century.
6. Identify and reflect on the diagram of the connection and the logical sequence of factors that show how the transition to conveyor production contributed to the formation of monopolies, the merging of industrial and banking capital.

There have always been poor and rich states in the world, powerful empires and countries dependent on them, which are more of an object of conquest than equal participants in world politics. But at the same time, up to the industrial revolution that occurred in Europe, the levels of development of most world civilizations differed little. Of course, during the Age of Discovery, Europeans often encountered tribes that lived by hunting, fishing and gathering, which seemed to them primitive and backward. However, in most of the states of Asia, North Africa, and partly pre-Columbian America, which have an ancient history and culture, the technique of agriculture, cattle breeding, and crafts did not differ much from the European one. Throughout the world, most of the population was employed in agriculture, extremely unproductive. Famine, epidemics that claimed millions of lives, were companions of all peoples. The level of technical development was also similar. Portuguese navigators who sailed around Africa found artillery in Arab fortresses that was not inferior to their own. The Russian explorers, having reached the Amur and met with the Manchus, were unpleasantly surprised that they had firearms.
The industrial revolution in the countries of Europe and North America was the root cause of the unevenness in world development. Achievements in science and technology, including military technology, the increase in labor productivity, the growth in the standard of living and life expectancy in these countries determined their special, leading role in world development. This leadership allowed them to establish economic and military-political control over the rest of the world, which for the most part became colonies and semi-colonies, dependent countries by the beginning of the century.

§ H. COUNTRIES OF WESTERN EUROPE, RUSSIA AND JAPAN: THE EXPERIENCE OF MODERNIZATION

Modernization, that is, mastering the industrial type of production, at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century became the goal of the policy of most states of the world. Modernization was associated with an increase in military power, expansion of export opportunities, revenues to the state budget, and an increase in living standards.
Among the countries that in the 20th century became centers for the development of industrial production, two main groups stood out. They are called differently: the first and second echelons of modernization, or organic and catching up development.
Two models industrial development. The first group of countries, which included Great Britain, France and the United States, was characterized by gradual development along the path of modernization. Initially, the industrial revolution, then the mastery of mass, conveyor industrial production took place in stages, as the corresponding socio-economic and cultural prerequisites matured. The prerequisites for the industrial revolution in England were, firstly, the maturity of capitalist, commodity-money relations, which determined the readiness of the domestic market to absorb large volumes of products. Secondly, the high level of development of manufactory production, which, in the first place, was subjected to modernization. Thirdly, the presence, on the one hand, of a large stratum of poor people who have no other sources of livelihood than selling their labor force, on the other hand, a stratum of entrepreneurs who owned capital and were ready to invest it in production.
With gradual modernization, the first steam engines, the new machines set in motion by them were produced in artisanal conditions and were used for the technical re-equipment of light industry (a stage that began in England at the end of the 18th century). Then, as the demand for machine tools and engines grew, heavy industry and mechanical engineering developed (this industry began to develop in England from the 20s of the XIX century), the need for iron and steel increased, which stimulated mining, iron ore mining, coal.
Following Great Britain, the industrial revolution began in the northern states of the United States, not burdened by the remnants of feudal relations. Thanks to the constant influx of emigrants from Europe, the number of skilled, free labor force grew in this country. However, industrialization was fully developed in the United States after the Civil War of 1861-1865. between North and South, which ended the slave-based plantation system of agriculture. France, where traditionally there was a developed manufacturing industry, bled dry by the Napoleonic wars, survived the restoration of the power of the Bourbon dynasty, embarked on the path of industrial development after the revolution of 1830.
It took almost a century for the first countries where the industrial revolution took place to master mass, large-scale, conveyor industrial production. The condition for its development, in turn, was the expansion of the capacity of markets, including foreign ones. The prerequisite is the concentration and centralization of capital, which took place in the process of ruin and merger of industrial companies. An important role was played by the creation of various types of joint-stock companies, which ensured the inflow of banking capital into industry.
Germany, Russia, Italy, Austria-Hungary and Japan also had traditions of advanced manufactory production. They were delayed in joining the industrial society for various reasons. For Germany and Italy main problem there was fragmentation into small kingdoms and principalities, which made it difficult to form a sufficiently capacious internal market. Only after the unification of Italy (1861) and Germany under the leadership of Prussia (1871) did the pace of their industrialization accelerate. In Russia and Austria-Hungary, industrialization was hindered by the preservation of subsistence farming in the countryside, combined with various forms of personal dependence of the peasantry on landowners, which determined the narrowness of the internal market. A negative role was played by the limited internal financial resources, the predominance of the tradition of investing in trade, and not in industry.
The main impetus for modernization, mastery of industrial production in the countries of catching up development most often came from the ruling circles, who see it as a means of strengthening the position of the state in the international arena. For the Russian Empire, the stimulus to concentrate efforts on the tasks of modernization was the defeat in the Crimean War of 1853-1856, which showed its military-technical lag behind Great Britain and France. The transformations that began with the abolition of serfdom in 1861, reforms in the system of administrative and state administration, the army, continued in the 20th century, provided the emergence of the prerequisites for the transition to industrial development. For Austria-Hungary, such an incentive was its defeat in the war with Prussia (1866).
Japan was the first of the Asian countries to embark on the path of modernization. Until the middle of the 19th century, it remained a feudal state and pursued a policy of self-isolation. In 1854, faced with the threat of bombardment of ports by a squadron of American ships of Admiral Perry, under pressure from England and Russia, her government, headed by a shogun (military leader), accepted unequal conditions for relations with foreign powers. The transformation of Japan into a dependent country caused dissatisfaction with many feudal clans, samurai (chivalry), merchant capital, and artisans. As a result of the revolution of 1867-1868. the shogun was removed from power. Japan became a parliamentary, centralized monarchy headed by an emperor. Agrarian reform and reform of the management system were carried out. Although the estate system was preserved, feudal fragmentation and feudal, non-economic forms of exploitation of the peasantry gradually ceased to exist. Instead of Buddhism, which focuses on a passive, submissive perception of fate, Shintoism, the traditionally Japanese cult of the Sun goddess, dating back to pagan times, was declared the state religion. Shinto, deifying the emperor, became a symbol of the awakening national identity.
The role of the state in the modernization of Russia, Germany and Japan. Despite the great specificity of the development of the countries of the second echelon of modernization, their experience revealed a number of common, similar features, the main of which was the special role of the state in the economy, due to the following reasons.
First, it was the state that became the main instrument for implementing reforms designed to create the preconditions for modernization. The reforms were supposed to reduce the scope of subsistence and semi-subsistence farming, promote the development of commodity-money relations, and ensure the release of free laborers for use in a growing industry.
Secondly, in conditions when the need for industrial goods in the domestic market was satisfied by importing them from more developed countries, the modernizing states were forced to resort to protectionism, intensifying the state customs policy to protect only the growing strength of domestic producers.
Thirdly, the state directly financed and organized the construction of railways, the creation of factories and factories. (In Russia, and especially in Germany and Japan, the greatest support was given to the military industry and its service industries.) This was explained, on the one hand, by the desire to overcome the lag as soon as possible, sphere, industrial. The way out was the creation of mixed companies and banks with the participation of state and sometimes foreign capital. The role of foreign sources of modernization financing was especially great in Austria-Hungary, Russia, Japan, and less so in Germany and Italy. Foreign capital was attracted to various forms, such as direct investment, participation in mixed companies, the purchase of government securities, the provision of loans.
Most of the countries that modernized within the framework of the catch-up development model in the late 19th and early 20th centuries achieved notable success. Thus, Germany became one of the main competitors of England in the world markets. Japan in 1911 got rid of the previously unequal treaties imposed on it. At the same time, accelerated development was a source of exacerbation of many contradictions both in the international arena and within the modernizing states themselves.
The protectionist policy, the introduction of increased customs duties on imported goods, led to an aggravation of relations with foreign trading partners, prompted them to respond with the same measures, which gave rise to trade wars. To compensate for the growing costs of supporting domestic production, the state was forced to take unpopular measures. Taxes were raised, other measures were sought to replenish the treasury at the expense of the population.
Social results of modernization. The most difficult problems created the social consequences of modernization. In essence, they were the same in all countries that entered the industrial phase of development and faced the social stratification of society. With the development of industry, small-scale, semi-subsistence and subsistence production in town and country, which was the basis for the existence of a large mass of small proprietors, fell into decline. Property, capital, land were concentrated in the hands of the big and middle bourgeoisie, which at the beginning of the 20th century in the industrial countries of Europe made up 4-5% of the population. Up to half of the economically active, that is, the working population, was made up of the working class - hired workers employed in industry, construction, transport, services, agriculture, who have no other means of subsistence than selling their labor force. They found themselves in distress during crises of overproduction, accompanied by an increase in the number of destitute.
The centers of manifestation of the most acute social contradictions were the cities, which grew with the development of industrial production. The source of replenishment of the ranks of the urban industrial working class were artisans, workers in handicraft industries that could not compete with industry. Land-poor and ruined peasants who lost their land flocked to the cities in search of work. The concentration of large masses of the poor, the unemployed, whose number increased during periods of economic crises, was, as the experience of revolutionary uprisings in Paris in 1830, 1848, 1871 showed back in the 19th century, a constant source of threat to the social and political stability of the state. Meanwhile, the trend of urban growth was rapidly gaining momentum. In 1800 there was not a single city in the world with a population of more than one million people, in 1850 there were two of them (London and Paris), in 1900 already 13, by 1940 - about 40. In the oldest industrial country of the world, Great Britain, by the beginning of the century, about 80% of the population lived in cities. In Russia, which was developing along the industrial path, it was 15%, while the population of the two largest cities, Moscow and St. Petersburg, exceeded 1 million people.
In the countries of the first echelon of modernization, social problems accumulated gradually, which created opportunities for their gradual solution. In these countries, the agrarian question, the problem of the transfer of land into the hands of farmers or landowners using highly productive, capitalist methods of management, as a rule, was resolved at an early stage of industrialization. So, in the USA, which did not know landownership, the total number farms(5.8 million) from 1900 to 1945 almost did not change, the absolute number of people employed in agriculture decreased slightly, from 12.2 to 9.8 million people. On average, only about 2% of farms changed owners every year due to bankruptcies and non-payment of taxes (this figure increased during especially acute crises). With such indicators, agrarian relations did not cause catastrophic social tension. The growth of the urban population, the number of hired workers was mainly due to immigration, the natural increase of the townspeople proper. In England already in the last century the possibilities of increasing the number of industrial workers at the expense of the peasantry were practically exhausted. The rural population adhered mainly to conservative views, was influenced by the church and large landowners.
A different situation developed in the countries of the second wave of modernization, especially in Russia, where the social problems inherent in an industrial society were exacerbated by the unresolved agrarian issue. After the abolition of serfdom in 1861, the rate of growth in the number of hired workers in Russia was not inferior to the American one. Over four decades, by the beginning of the 20th century, their number increased from 3.9 million to 14 million, that is, 3.5 times. But at the same time, a huge mass of the poorest, land-poor peasants remained in the villages. With the extremely low productivity of their labor, they actually constituted an excess rural population that could not find work in the cities. They were no less explosive social mass than the urban poor.
Maintaining stability in society with accelerated modernization largely depended on the resources that could be allocated to solve social problems and reduce their severity. in Germany in the 1880s. laws were passed on insurance of workers against accidents at work, in case of illness, and pensions (from the age of 70). The length of the working day was legally limited to 11 hours, child labor under the age of 13 was prohibited. Japan has also avoided major social conflicts despite low wages and long working hours. A paternalistic type of labor relations developed here, in which employers and employees considered themselves as members of the same team. It is significant that the first trade unions were created on the initiative of entrepreneurs, supported by the state. In 1890, entrepreneurs voluntarily reduced the length of the working day and created social insurance funds.
The problems of modernization became most acute in Russia, which survived the revolution of 1905-1907. However, it must be taken into account that Russia had fewer resources for social maneuvering than other industrialized countries. The national income per capita in 1913 in Russia (in comparable prices of 1980) was only $350, while in Japan it was $700, in Germany, France and Great Britain it was $1,700, in the USA it was $2325
DOCUMENTS AND MATERIALS
From the report of the Minister of Finance S. Yu. Witte, February 1900:
“The growth of industry in a comparatively short period of time is in itself very significant. In terms of the speed and strength of this growth, Russia is ahead of all foreign economically developed states, and there is no doubt that the country, which was able to more than triple its mining and factory industry in two decades, is fraught with a reserve of internal forces for further development. , and such a development in the near future is urgently needed, because no matter how great the results already achieved, nevertheless, in relation to the needs of the population, and in comparison with foreign countries, our industry is still very behind.
From the monograph of Academician I.I. Mints "History of the Great October".:
“In Russia, capitalism began to develop much later than in other countries; it did not have to go through the entire path of development step by step. He could use and actually did use the experience and technology of the more developed capitalist countries. Russian large-scale industry, mainly heavy industry, which appeared later than other branches of the national economy, did not go through all the usual stages of development - from small-scale commodity production through manufacture to large-scale machine industry. The heavy industry of Russia was created in the form of large and largest enterprises equipped with advanced capitalist technology. Tsarism provided subsidies and benefits mainly to the magnates of capital and thus encouraged the construction of large enterprises. Foreign capitalists penetrating the Russian economy also built large enterprises equipped with modern technology. Therefore, the development of capitalism in Russia proceeded at a rapid pace. In terms of growth rates, Russian heavy industry overtook the countries of developed capitalism<...>
The workers here were subjected to unheard of exploitation. Although under the law of 1897. the working day was limited to 11.5 hours, but repeated amendments reduced this meager law to nothing: the capitalists extended the working day to 13-14 hours, and in some enterprises even up to 16 hours. For the longest working day in the world, the proletariat received the most miserable wages<...>Not a single capitalist country in the 20th century. did not know such a broad democratic movement of small landowners for the transfer to them of the lands of large landlords, like Russia. In the West, in most of the capitalist developed countries, the bourgeois revolution had ended by the beginning of the 20th century. In the countryside, as a rule, the capitalist system was strengthened. The remains of serfdom were insignificant<...>It was not so in Russia. Here, too, capitalism was strengthened and developed in the landlord and peasant economy. But capitalist relations were entangled and crushed by all sorts of feudal remnants. (Mints I.I. History of the Great October. T. 1.M., 1967. S. 98-102.)
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. Expand your understanding of the term "modernization". In what history courses did you meet him? Give examples of modernization processes in individual countries.
2. On what grounds are countries of the first and second echelons of modernization distinguished?
3. Expand the main features of the modernization process and its consequences in the countries of the second echelon of development on the examples of the history of one or two states.
4. Using knowledge on national history, describe the main problems of modernization in Russia in the late XIX - early XX century. What were the similarities and differences between these processes in Russia and Western European countries?

Describe the main directions of scientific and technological progress in the late XIX - first half of the XX century. Give examples of the impact of scientific achievements on changing the face of the world

• Electricity
• Construction materials
• Transport
• Aviation
• Jet aviation and rocket technology
• Radio electronics
• The medicine

The first electric city trams, the subway, electric street lighting appeared. Electrification of all spheres of life.

Reveal the origins of increasing labor productivity in industry at the beginning of the 20th century.

• The need to produce a large number of technologically complex products
• The division of the manufacturing process of complex products into a number of relatively simple operations performed in a clear sequence in a certain time. (Idea engineer Friedrich Taylor)
• Creation of conveyor production
• Increasing the competitiveness of production

Show how the need to modernize production contributed to the formation of monopolies, the merging of banking and industrial capital.

The technical re-equipment of production and transport, the creation of industry giants, scientific laboratories required significant funds. Monopolies have developed. The role of banks, which also merged and became ever larger, increased. In search of money, entrepreneurs borrowed funds from banks against the security of shares in their companies. Banks gradually received the right to a decisive voice in the management of production. This is how banking capital merged with industrial capital.

What forms of monopolistic associations do you know?

1. A cartel is an association of several enterprises of the same sphere of production, whose participants retain ownership of the means of production and the product produced, industrial and commercial independence, and agree on the share of each in the total production volume, prices, markets.
2. A syndicate is an association of a number of enterprises in the same industry, the participants of which retain the right to the means of production, but lose ownership of the product produced, which means that they retain production, but lose their commercial independence. In syndicates, the sale of goods is carried out by a common sales office.
3. A trust is an association of a number of enterprises in one or more industries, the participants of which lose their ownership of the means of production and the product produced, their industrial and commercial independence, i.e. combine production, marketing, finance, management, and for the amount of invested capital, the owners of individual enterprises receive trust shares, which give them the right to take part in management and appropriate a corresponding part of the trust's profit.
4. A concern is an association of tens and even hundreds of enterprises in various industries, transport, trade, whose participants lose ownership of the means of production and the product produced, and the main company exercises financial control over other participants in the association.
5. Conglomerate - monopolistic associations formed by absorbing the profits of diversified enterprises that do not have technical and production unity.

The need for the production of increasing volumes of technologically more and more complex products required not only the renewal of the fleet of machine tools, new equipment, but also a more perfect organization of production. The advantages of intra-factory division of labor were known as early as the 18th century. A. Smith wrote about them in his famous work “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations” (1776). In particular, he compared the work of an artisan who made needles by hand, and a manufactory worker, each of whom performed only individual operations using machine tools, noting that in the second case, labor productivity increased by more than two hundred times.

American engineer F.W. Taylor (1856--1915) proposed to divide the process of manufacturing complex products into a number of relatively simple operations performed in a clear sequence with the timing required for each operation. For the first time, the Taylor system was tested in practice by the auto manufacturer G. Ford in 1908 in the production of the Ford-T model he invented. In contrast to the 18 operations for the production of needles, 7882 operations were required to assemble a car. As G. Ford wrote in his memoirs, the analysis showed that 949 operations required physically strong men, 3338 could be performed by people of average health, 670 could be performed by legless disabled people, 2637 by one-legged, two by armless, 715 by one-armed, 10 - blind. It was not about charity with the involvement of disabled people, but a clear distribution of functions. This made it possible, first of all, to significantly simplify and reduce the cost of training workers. Many of them now required no more skill than needed to turn a lever or turn a nut. It became possible to assemble machines on a continuously moving conveyor belt, which greatly accelerated the production process.

It is clear that the creation of conveyor production made sense and could be profitable only with large volumes of output. The symbol of the first half of the 20th century was the giants of industry, huge industrial complexes employing tens of thousands of people. Their creation required the centralization of production and the concentration of capital, which were ensured through mergers of industrial companies, the combination of their capital with bank capital, and the formation of joint-stock companies. The very first established large corporations that mastered conveyor production ruined competitors who were delayed in the phase of small-scale production, monopolized the domestic markets of their countries, and launched an attack on foreign competitors. Thus, five major corporations dominated the electrical industry on the world market by 1914: three American corporations (General Electric, Westinghouse, Western Electric) and two German ones (AEG and Simmens).

The transition to large-scale industrial production, made possible by technological progress, contributed to its further acceleration. The reasons for the rapid acceleration of technological development in the 20th century are associated not only with the successes of science, but also with the general state of the system of international relations, the world economy, and social relations. In the conditions of ever-increasing competition in world markets, the largest corporations were looking for methods to weaken competitors and invade their spheres of economic influence. In the last century, methods of increasing competitiveness were associated with attempts to increase the length of the working day, the intensity of labor, without increasing, or even reducing the wages of employees. This made it possible, by releasing large volumes of products at a lower cost per unit of goods, to push out competitors, sell products cheaper and make more profit. However, the use of these methods was, on the one hand, limited by the physical capabilities of employees, on the other hand, they met with increasing resistance, which violated social stability in society. With the development of the trade union movement, the emergence of political parties that defend the interests of wage laborers, under their pressure, in most industrialized countries, laws were passed that limited the length of the working day and established minimum wage rates. When labor disputes arose, the state, which was interested in social peace, increasingly shied away from supporting entrepreneurs, gravitating toward a neutral, compromise position.

Under these conditions, the main method of increasing competitiveness was, first of all, the use of more advanced productive machines and equipment, which also made it possible to increase the volume of output at the same or even lower cost of human labor. So, only for the period 1900-1913. labor productivity in industry increased by 40%. This provided more than half of the growth in world industrial output (it amounted to 70%). Technical thought turned to the problem of reducing the cost of resources and energy per unit of output, i.e. reducing its cost, switching to the so-called energy-saving and resource-saving technologies. So, in 1910 in the USA the average cost of a car was 20 average monthly salaries of a skilled worker, in 1922 - only three. Finally, the most important method of conquering markets has become the ability to update the range of products before others, to throw products on the market that have qualitatively new consumer properties.

The most important factor in ensuring competitiveness, therefore, has become technological progress. Those corporations that benefited the most from it naturally secured advantages over their competitors.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

• 1. Describe the main directions of scientific and technological progress by the beginning of the 20th century.
• 2. Give the most significant examples of the impact of scientific discoveries on changing the face of the world. Which of them would you single out especially in terms of significance in the scientific and technological progress of mankind? Explain your opinion.
• 3. Explain how scientific discoveries in one area of ​​knowledge influenced advances in other areas. What impact did they have on the development of industry, agriculture, the state of the financial system?
• 4. What place did the achievements of Russian scientists occupy in world science? Give examples from the textbook and other sources of information.
• 5. Reveal the origins of increasing productivity in industry at the beginning of the 20th century.
• 6. Identify and reflect on the diagram of the connection and the logical sequence of factors that show how the transition to conveyor production contributed to the formation of monopolies, the merging of industrial and banking capital.